Brownell, M., Roos, N., Macwilliam, L., Leclair, L., Ekuma, O. & Fransoo, R. (2010). Academic and Social Outcomes for High-Risk Youths in Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Education / Revue Canadienne de l’éducation, 33(4), 804–836. http://www.jstor.org/stable/canajeducrevucan.33.4.804
In a study of 11,703 Winnipeg youths, those with child welfare involvement, poverty or a teen mother were far less likely to finish high school (41–57% failed with one risk factor and 84% with all three, versus 18% with none). They also did worse on other academic and social outcomes, which the authors see as an entrenched cycle of disadvantage.